References

  1. Atkinson FS, Brand-Miller JC, Foster-Powell K, et al. International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values 2021: a systematic review. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(Supplement 1).
  2. American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes — 2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Supplement 1).
  3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central: SR Legacy. April 2018. fdc.nal.usda.gov
  4. Liu S, Manson JE, Buring JE, et al. Relation between a diet with a high glycemic load and plasma concentrations of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in middle-aged women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75(3):492-498.
  5. Qi L, Hu FB. Dietary glycemic load, whole grains, and systemic inflammation in diabetes: the epidemiological evidence. Curr Diab Rep. 2012;12(1):75-81.
  6. Schulze MB, Hoffmann K, Manson JE, et al. Dietary pattern, inflammation, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(3):675-684.
  7. Fung TT, Malik V, Rexrode KM, et al. Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89(4):1037-1042.
  8. Uribarri J, Woodruff S, Goodman S, et al. Advanced glycation end products in foods and a practical guide to their reduction in the diet. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(6):911-916.
  9. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, et al. Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(11):2477-2483.
  10. Micha R, Wallace SK, Mozaffarian D. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 2010;121(21):2271-2283.
  11. Brand-Miller JC, Holt SHA, Pawlak DB, McMillan J. Glycemic index and obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76(1):281S-285S.
  12. Shukla AP, Dickison M, Coughlin N, et al. The impact of food order on postprandial glycaemic excursions in prediabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018;20(7):1718-1722.
  13. Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ. Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high-carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(1):281-282.

References [1] and [3] apply to all food pages. References [2] applies to warning thresholds. References [4-13] apply to specific food categories and warning labels as cited throughout the site.

Dietary reference — not medical advice. This page provides evidence-based dietary reference information for general educational purposes. It is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Individual blood sugar responses vary significantly. Always check your blood glucose to understand your personal response to foods, and talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian before changing your diet. Data sources are cited above and publicly available from the USDA and the University of Sydney Glycemic Index Research Service.